PAD 170 : GOVERNMENT & POLITICS
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS – PART TWO
22.
Explain what is meant by
“Independence of the Judiciary”
(“Judicial
Independence”).
Judicial independence means that the judges (judiciary) should
decide cases that come before them impartially (secara adil dan dengan tidak
berat sebelah). This means that they should decide cases on the basis of facts,
evidence and in accordance with the law in each case. They should make decisions without any
outside interference, influence (pengaruh), pressure (tekanan), threats (ancaman/ugutan)
or restrictions (sekatan). In other words, they should decide matters without
interference (campur tangan) from the
Executive or the Legislature or from private or political interests. They need
not fear reprisals (tindak balas) for interpreting and applying the law to the
best of their ability. Moreover, they
must be free to act according to law no matter how unpopular their decisions
may be.
23. How is judicial independence secured in
Malaysia?
In Malaysia, Judicial
independence is secured in the following ways:
a) Judges are independent of the Executive and the Legislature and
they do not get involved in political debate or political activities.
b) Judges cannot be sued or prosecuted (didakwa) for what they do or
say in their capacity as a judge and in the course of their duties.
c) Rules concerning the tenure of office, remuneration (saraan),
qualifications and powers of the judges are enshrined (termaktub) in the
Federal Constitution.
d) The conduct of superior court judges cannot be dicussed in
Parliament. It could be discussed only if one quarter of the total members of
either house submits a substantive motion to that effect. Their conduct cannot be
discussed in any State Assembly.
e) The tenure of office (tempoh jawatan) of the judges is guaranteed
by the Constitution. Judges hold office during good behaviour and retire at 66.
f) The remuneration of the judges is fixed by law (Judges’
Remuneration Act 1971) and shall not be reduced after their appointment. Their
Remuneration is charged on the Consolidated Fund (Kumpulan Wang Yang Disatukan)
and it is not reviewed annually by parliament.
g) A special Tribunal is set up under Article 125 (3) and (4) of the
Federal Constitution to remove a judge if he is guilty of breaching (melanggar the
judicial code of ethics prescribed under Article 125 (3B) and (3C) and the
Judges’ Code of Ethics 1994. (Under the Code of Ethics,a judge cannot put his private interest over his judicial
duties; use his judicial position for his personal advantage; bring the
judiciary into disrepute (mendapat nama
buruk) or discredit; or be a member of any political party or participate in
any political activity).
24. How are judges appointed in Malaysia
A
person is qualified to be appointed as a judge of the Superior Courts (i.e. the Federal
Court, the Court of Appeal and the High Courts) if he or she is a Malaysian
citizen; and either an advocate (peguam) who has practised in any of the
Superior Courts for at least 10 years preceding (sebelum) his or her
appointment or a member of the Judicial and Legal Service or of the legal service
of a State for at least ten years just before his or her appointment. The rules
and procedures concerning the appointment of judges in Malaysia are contained
in Article 122B of the Federal Constitution and the Judicial Appointments
Commission Act 2009 (JAC Act). His Majesty the Yang di-Pertuan Agong appoints
the Chief Justice, the Head of the Malaysian Judiciary, on the advice of the
Prime Minister after consulting the Conference of Rulers. The appointment of the President of the Court of Appeal, the
Chief Judge of the High Court of Malaya, the Chief Judge of the High Court of
Sabah and Sarawak, judges of the Federal Court, the Court of Appeal and the
High Court is also similar to that of the Chief
Justice. The Judicial Appointments Commission was established under the
Judicial Appointments Commission Act 2009 to assist the Prime Minister in advising the
Yang di-Pertuan Agong on the appointment of Superior Court judges and judicial
commissioners, including the appointments of the Chief Justice, the President
of the Court of Appeal and the Chief
Judges of the two High Courts. The Commission selects and recommends to the
Prime Minister, candidates who are qualified for appointment. The JAC Act stipulates (menetapkan) that in
order to be appointed as a judge, judicial Commissioner, Chief Justice,
President of the Court of Appeal, or Chief Judge of a High Court, must possess
qualities such as integrity, competency, experience; objectivity; impartiality;
good moral character; ability to make timely judgments and good legal writing
skills; abilty to mana ge cases well; and physical and mental health.
CIVIL SERVICE /PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
25.
Define ‘Civil Service’ and
‘Public administration.’
Civil Service refers to the entire body
of persons employed in government agencies and departments. Civil servants are known as the permanent
non-political executive. They are career employees usually chosen by an open
competitive examination and promoted on the basis of merit and seniority. They
are paid monthly remuneration and are required to serve the government of the
day. Their role is to implement the government’s programmes, activities and
laws and to act as advisors to the political executive under whom they work.
Public Administration refers to the
management of the various activities carried out by the government at the
central, state and local levels. It covers all three branches of the
government. These activities include planning, formulating and implementing
public policies; providing services such as education, health care, welfare;
imposing and collecting taxes; licensing; garbage collection; conducting
foreign policy and diplomacy, etc.
26. Explain the concept of the ‘Neutrality of the Civil Service.’
According
to this concept, civil servants, as permanent and non-political employees of
the government, should serve the government of the day with enthusiasm,
integrity and impartiality. In other words, they must show political
neutrality. This means that they should
not be aligned with any political party. For this reason, top civil servants
are not allowed to take active part in politics. They should quit their job if
they are keen to stand for election or participate in party politics. Since
civil servants are the servants of the state, they are required to apply the
laws and policies of the government impartially and fairly. While applying the
laws of the state, they should not show any partiality or preference to any
individual, any race or any group of individuals in society. They should be
guided only by the application of law equally to everybody. In their relations with the public, too,
civil servants must be impartial. This implies no discrimination against any
group. In a multi-cultural, multi-ethnic and multi-religious society like
Malaysia, it is vital that civil servants uphold this cardinal (terutama)
principle.
27. Explain the principles of public administration.
The principles of public
administration may be stated as follows:
a) Public
administration is governed by certain laws, procedures and regulations. Those
involved in it should therefore act within the scope of their powers and
functions fixed by those laws to ensure legality.
b) Public
agencies should use the resources (men, money and material) entrusted to them
prudently (secara hemat), efficiently and effectively. Waste and extravagance
should be avoided.
c) Service
delivery should be of pre-determined quality and be prompt.
d) Public
services must be provided impartially, fairly, equitably and without bias.
e) Transparency
(ketelusan) must be fostered by
providing the public with timely, accessible and accurate information;
decision-making should be open and transparent.
f) It must be people-centred and be responsive to
the needs of the people.
g) It
must be broadly representative of the
Malaysian population, with employment and human resource management practices
based on merit, objectivity and fairness.
h) It
must be development-oriented and performance-based. Programmes and activities
of the government must be implemented
according to schedule, with consistent and continuous monitoring. Programmes
and projects must be evaluated on a timely basis and remedial action must be
taken to rectify non-performing programmes and projects.
i) It must be accountable for all its actions and
performance to the people.
j) Public
administration is required to promote and maintain a high standard of
professional ethics and neutrality.
k) Appointments
to positions in government should be based on proper assessment of merit and
competence. Good human resource management practices and career development
practices must be in place in order to maximize human potential and develop
human capital to meet the needs of the nation.
l) It
must be governed by democratic values and principles enshrined in the constitution.
28. What is meant by ‘Politics- Administration Dichotomy’?
In his essay on “The Study of Administration” Woodrow
Wilson (1880), an US scholar and statesman, suggested that there is a
difference between ‘administration’ and ‘politics.’ They are not the same. This came to be known
as the politics-administration dichotomy.
According to him, ‘Politics is the expression of the will (kehendak/niat)
of the state and ‘administration’ is the execution of that will. In other
words, politics is about policy- making and administration concerns
policy-execution. In short, policy-making is the business of politics and
policy implementation is the business of administration. This means that
administration has no role to play in policy-making, and is limited to only
policy execution. Elected law-makers represent politics and politically
–neutral technocrats and bureaucrats (civil servants) represent administration.
This theory has been rejected by most scholars (sarjana- sarjana). It is no
longer valid. Scholars like Appleby, Simon and Waldo are of the view that there
is no clear separation between politics and administration. Public
administration is policy- making and is part of the political process. In other words, public administration
contributes to both the formulation and execution of policies. We can say that
in the modern world public administrators, particularly the senior officers,
play an important role in the policy-making process. They identify problems and
issues and carry out research and studies and initiate and prepare policies and
laws for submission to the political executive. They also advise politicians on
national issues and policies.
POLITICAL PARTIES &
PRESSURE GROUPS
29.
Define ‘Political Party’ and explain the characteristics of political
parties.
A
political party is an organised group of people who share the same political
views and try to control the government.
The characteristics of a political party are the following:
a) Political
parties have a formal organisation structure.
b) They
have specific ideologies or policies (such as nationalist, socialist, liberal
democracy, conservative, religious, etc) to promote among citizens.
c) Their
aim is to promote national interest and not any sectional interest.
d) They
aim to control the government by constitutional and peaceful means.
e) They
educate the masses on political matters through public meetings, propaganda and
electoral campaigns.
f) They
serve as a link between the government and the people and between the legislative
and the executive branches of the government.
g) Their
membership is broad and varied (i.e. includes people in all income brackets, occupations,
religion, race, etc )
30.
Discuss the differences
between political parties and pressure or interest groups.
The
differences between political parties and pressure groups may be explained as
follows:
a) A political party is generally a much larger
organization than a pressure group.
b) Political parties contest elections to gain
political control but pressure groups only try to promote their cause by influencing
government policy.
c) Political parties have wide-ranging policies,
such as economic, political, social and environmental, whereas pressure group
policies are specific and their interests are limited – they promote a simple
and single cause such as the environment, labour, human rights, etc.
d) Political parties attempt to make people
politically conscious by making them aware of their rights and civic
responsibilities as citizens. In contrast, pressure groups do not try to do
this.
e) Political parties are active both within and
outside the legislature, whereas pressure groups are active only outside the
legislature.
31.
Define “Pressure Groups”
and explain the various types of pressure/interest groups.
Pressure/Interest
groups are voluntary associations of individuals who have common goals and who
work together to achieve their objectives by attempting to influence government
policy.
Examples
of pressure groups are: SUARAM, CUEPACS, Malaysian Trade Union Congress (MTUC)
, Amnesty International, Greenpeace,
ALIRAN, Bar Council of Malaysia; Malaysian Medical Council; Sisters in Islam,
etc. Interest/pressure groups may be classified into four broad categories as
follows:
i.
Anomic
ii.
Associational
iii.
Non- Associational and
iv.
Institutional.
Anomic groups
These
are ad hoc (unplanned) or spontaneous groups with a collective response to a
particular frustration or a situation. They come into existence as a result of
turmoil and excitement, a crisis, a specific event or issue. Anomic groups do
not have a formal structure or leaders and their actions are often violent.
They express their grievances through violent riots, demonstrations and street
protests. Some examples of anomic groups are: Popular uprising / revolt in
Tunisia and Egypt in January 2010; Disaffected (dissatisfied/frustrated) youths
in poor urban areas in France (in 2005) protesting against discrimination; thousands
of people around the world gathering in street protests to demand an end to
Israel’s offensive in Lebanon and Gaza in 2006; Street protests, general
strikes and demonstrations against food and fuel price hike; increases toll
rates; rampant corruption and abuse of power and increasing criminal activities
in particular areas of a country.
Associational groups
These
are formally and well-organized groups formed to represent the interests of a
particular group. Associational groups promote economic and vocational interests;
public interest or single issues or protect the interests of their members.
Trade unions, business and commercial associations, consumer associations and professional
bodies are examples of this type of group. Their unique character is that they
represent a section of society, like workers, consumers, employers, farmers,
fishermen, miners, professionals, home owners, pensioners, etc. Some examples
of associational groups in Malaysia are: Association of Banks in Malaysia
(ABM); Bar Council Malaysia; Federation of Malaysia Manufacturers (FMM);
Malaysian Trade Union Congress (MTUC); Sahabat Alam Malaysia (SAM); FOMCA; Farmers
Association of Malaysia.
Non-Associational groups.
These
are the complete opposite of associational interest groups. They have no formal
organisation. They are composed of individuals who feel close to others on the
basis of class, race, religion, culture or gender. These groups are present in
every society and their activity is dependent on the issue at hand. They
disappear when the issue is no longer pressing. French Canadians, Protestants,
Catholics, Muslims, Westeners, Consumers, University students and Sport groups
are examples of this type of group.
Institutional groups.
These
are groups which are within the Government. They attempt to influence or put
pressure through the machinery of the government itself. In other words, they
act internally (through negotiation and dialogue) to influence public decisions
or policies or to defend their own interests. They are well-structured, formal organizations
with stable membership, clear objectives and in-depth knowledge of all sectors
of the government and their clients. They are not involved in political
activity. As they are part of government departments or agencies, they are
politically neutral. Examples of
institutional groups in Malaysia are: CUEPACS, the National Union of the
Teaching Profession (NUTP); the Malaysian Nurses’ Union; the Academic Staff
Unions of Universities.
32.
Explain the strategies or tactics used by pressure/interest groups to
influence government policy.
Pressure groups use a variety of tactics and
strategies to influence government policy and to achieve their objectives. These may be described as follows:
i.
Lobbying.
The
most common pressure group/interest group technique is lobbying. “Lobbying”
means seeking to influence and persuade decision-makers, government officials
or law-makers to support a group’s position or cause. Pressure groups hire professionals who are
knowledgeable about particular issues to influence policy-makers. The
representatives of pressure groups who make direct, private (personal) and
face-to- face contact with law-makers and government leaders and officials to
communicate the desires and views of pressure/interest groups on certain
political or social issues or influence public policy are called lobbyists. Lobbyists
help pressure groups promote their cause by talking directly to the bureaucrats
and legislators; they testify at legislative committee hearings and offer their
technical expertise or specialized knowledge; they alert legislators of a
bill’s effects on their constituencies; they help influential members in a
constituency contact a legislator’s office to express their views; they get
involved in government policy planning agencies; they organize advertising
campaigns to oppose a particular bill or to publicize the group’s cause or give
wide publicity to the group’s position on a particular issue; and they
commission public opinion polls to show policy-makers that public opinion is
strongly inclined in one direction.
In
order to persuade members of parliament and government officials of their point
of view, lobbyists provide policy-makers with pamphlets, reports, vital
statistics, and other kinds of carefully-researched , detailed, specific and
up-to-date information supporting a group’s position on a particular issue.
Some legislators depend upon the specialized advice of lobbyists on certain
very complex subjects or issues in order to help them decide how to vote on a
bill.
ii.
Mass Campaigns
Pressure
groups also use the mass media – i.e. radio, Television, newspapers, journals,
the internet and weblogs (blogs) and social networks such as Twitter, Facebook, WiserEarth, Friendster, LinkedIn,
Video, Tagged, etc. to connect to the people and inform the public and gain support for their views or
cause. Coverage in the mass media helps interest groups communicate their
message to a broad audience that includes both the general public and
government decision-makers. For example, environmentalists have run television,
newspaper, internet and magazine advertisements to dramatize pollution and the
hazards it poses to life and health.
iii.
Publicity Campaigns
Pressure
groups also organize public information campaigns to mobilize and galvanize
ordinary people and win public support for their views or cause. They hope
public opinion in their favour will influence decision-makers. Many pressure
groups urge their members to write petitions, letters, fax, emails and make
phone calls to government officials, ministers and legislators to demonstrate
broad support for or against a particular policy.
iv.
Public Protests
These
include marches, rallies, demonstrations, strikes, pickets and boycotts.
Pressure groups have often used these tactics to seek policy changes or to show
opposition to certain policies. Mass rallies against globalization,
privatization, trade policies of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and mass
protests against the Lebonon, Vietnam and Iraq wars are some examples.
v.
Litigation
If
the government is unresponsive to their concerns and causes, pressure groups
turn to the courts for remedy. They use litigation (law suits) to gain support
for their cause by working within the court system. This may be important in setting a precedent
in matters or issues for which there is no pre-existing legislation or policy,
such as the recent Ontario (Canada) court ruling that women can bare (uncover
or expose) their breasts in public if
they desire to do so (i.e. go topless anywhere they please!) ; people can own guns; and gays and lesbians can get married.
Interest
groups normally use the courts to influence policy through the filing of direct
lawsuits challenging government policy decisions and filing amicus curiae
briefs (i.e. a document outline the views of an interested party / group on a
matter that is the subject of a court hearing) and offering legal
assistance and financing suits
brought by individuals.
vi.
Organizing Election
Campaigns
Pressure
groups involved in election campaigns by endorsing candidates sympathetic to
the group’s objectives or those who will support their cause or positions on
certain issues. They make financial contributions to the candidates they have
endorsed to take care of campaign expenses.
ELECTION
& ELECTORAL SYSTEMS
33. Explain the factors that can ensure a free
and fair election.
The
factors that could ensure a free and fair election are the following:
a) An independent
Election Commission must be established to conduct and manage elections without
being controlled or interfered with by the government or any other authority.
b) All
registered parties should be given fair and equal access to the media to get
their message across to the people.
c) Elections
must be held periodically (secara bekala) to give the voters a right and an
opportunity to elect their representatives freely.
d) A
system of fair laws, rules and regulations relating to elections must be in
place.
e) All
parties and independents must strictly observe the rule of law and reject the
use of violence and intimidation during the election, on Election Day and after
the election.
f) All
eligible voters should be registered duly without any discrimination and
secrecy of voting must be maintained.
g) Elections
must be monitored by independent observers and reporting on the elections must
be impartial.
h) The
resources of the government – equipment, vehicles, personnel and media – should
not be used for the ruling party’s election campaign.
i) An
independent election court should be established to interpret the electoral
laws impartially in case of electoral dispute.
j) The
ballots (votes) must be counted fairly, as quickly and promptly as possible,
and reported accurately.
k) Voters
must have easy access to polling stations and they should be given sufficient
time to vote.
l) Elections
must be conducted on the basis of the principle “one person one vote.”
m) Fraudulent
practices such as double voting, removal of valid ballot papers, ballot box stuffing
and ballot box swopping should be eliminated.
34.
Define “electoral system” and explain any two types of electoral systems
that you have studied.
‘Electoral
system’ refers to the laws, methods, procedures and rules and regulations used
for counting votes to determine the outcome of an election. It is also known as
‘voting system’ (sistem pilihanraya) or ‘representation system.’
The
two types of common electoral systems are the First-past-the-post system (FPTP)
and Proportional Representation (PR).
First- past- the-
post System
This
electoral system is also known as Single-member District (Constituency) system or
Plurality voting system, or Simple Majority system, or Winner-takes-all
system. It is also sometimes known as
Territorial or Geographical Representation system.
In
this system, members of a legislature are elected one at a time in small
constituencies. The winner will be the candidate who secures the highest number
of votes (most votes); whether he wins by one vote or 10,000 votes, it does not
matter. Malaysia uses this system of
voting.
The advantages of this
system are the following:
It
is simple, easy to understand and easier to administer; election results are
quickly calculated and it is decisive; and a majority government is likely
which may lead to more stable government.
Other
advantages of this system are: it provides a clear-cut choice for voters between two main parties;
it gives rise to single-party governments; it gives rise to a coherent
opposition in the legislature; it
promotes a link between constituents and their representatives, as
it produces a legislature made up of representatives
of geographical areas- elected members represent specific areas of cities,
towns or regions rather than party labels; it allows voters to choose between people rather than just between parties based on their assessment of
the performance of individual candidates.
The
demerits of this system of representation are: Sometimes a candidate is elected
to parliament on a minority of the total number of votes cast in a particular
constituency; this system excludes minority or smaller parties from ‘fair’
representation.
Proportional Representation (PR)
This
electoral system is based on the idea that each party should obtain representation
in proportion to the number of votes secured by it in an election. To implement
the system, the country is divided into multi-member constituencies in which
each party would be represented in proportion (seimbang) to the votes it obtained. The multi-member
constituencies may be relatively small, with only 3 or 4 members, or they may
be larger, with ten or more members. The
important feature of this electoral system is that they divide up the seats in
these multi-member districts according to the proportion of votes received by
the various parties. Thus, if the candidates of a party win 40%^ the votes in
ten- member district, they receive four of the ten seats - or 40% of the seats.
If another party wins 20% of the votes, it gets two seats, and so on. The basic
principles of the PR system are that all voters deserve representation and that
all political groups in society deserve to be represented in the legislatures
in proportion to their strength in the electorate. In other words, everyone
should have the right to fair representation.
VOTING BEHAVIOUR
35.
Define ‘voting behaviour’ and explain the factors that determine the
outcome of an election.
‘Voting behaviour’ refers to how people vote in an election – i.e.
How they make their choice (pilihan) of a candidate or party or how they decide
who to vote for. In other words, what factors do they consider as important
before they cast their ballot. Put simply, it means how or on what basis the
voters make their decisions.
Several
basic factors can be identified as reasons for choosing a candidate or party in
a general election. A voter may choose a candidate on the basis of one or more
of the following considerations:
a) Party Identification
This is also known as party affiliation, partisanship or party
loyalty. Some voters identify with one of the major parties and the party ties
or loyalty influence the vote. Race, religion, region, occupation, social class
(middle class, working class) and family background influence the voters’ choice of party
identification. The major influence on party affiliation or party attachment
comes from the family, teachers and peers. If your parents were members or
supporters of particular party, chances are that you will be one, too. Party
identification is a long-term factor (lifelong commitment).
a) Personality of Candidates.
Voters
also judge candidates by their personal characteristics. They are likely to
vote for candidates they perceive (memandang) as capable (berkebolehan) of
being effective leaders. Personal
characteristics/traits or qualities (sifat) include personal life (the way
candidates lead their personal life), character, personal appeal and appearance, competency (kecekapan),
leadership ability, experience, knowledge, honesty, integrity, morality,
trustworthiness and empathy (caring about people).
b) General Assessment of Government Performance/Party Performance
Voters
rely on general evaluations of the government or the party in power. Retrospective (past) evaluation of government
performance is an important, more immediate or short-term determinant (penentu)
of voting behaviour. How well the
government has done; how well its pre-determined objectives have been achieved;
what the government should do or should not do; has the national economy and
national security improved – these are questions that the voters will evaluate before
they make a decision and before going to the polls.
c) Issue Voting.
Many
voters say they vote only on policy issues (short-term consideration). This
means that they choose a candidate based on his
stand (pendirian) on questions of great importance to them. These issues
include: abortion; immigration reform; health care; gun control; gay marriages;
minority rights; religious issues; state of the economy (keadaan ekonomi
negara); inflation; budget deficit; women’s rights; Housing; transportation;
price increases (fuel , food items); conduct of foreign policy; personal
income; welfare benefits; minimum wage; education reforms; and political and
economic reforms. Gender, race, religion,
age, social class, election campaign (party Manifesto, speeches, electoral
strategies, current issues, etc), media power /influence and political
advertising are other factors that may determine the outcome of an election.
FORMS
OF GOVERNMENT
36. Explain the characteristics of a
constitutional government.
The features of a constitutional government
are the following:
a) In a
constitutional government there are limits on the powers of the government. The
Constitution, as the supreme law of the land, imposes the limits- i.e. actions
that the government may not take.
b) The
government is run according to the principles of the constitution - i.e. there
is rule of law which is the most important feature of a constitutional
government. The government has to respect and follow the laws of the country.
c) The
government is formed by the consent (persetujuan) of the governed (yang
diperintah) and the people are governed according to the rule of law (keluhuran
undang-undang).
d) There
is equality before the law. The rulers and the citizens are subject to the same
law. Citizens can challenge government action (if it abuses its authority) in
an independent court.
e) Individual
rights and liberties (freedoms) are protected and guaranteed in the
constitution.
f) The
government can only be changed by peaceful means and with the consent of the
people and according to established procedures.
g) There
is an independent judiciary to decide cases or disputes impartially.
h) There
is separation of powers between the three branches of the government. Each
branch of government has some control over the other two branches so that no
one branch of government becomes too powerful. This is called a system of
checks and balances.
i) The
citizens are given the right to choose their representatives in elections held
periodically (secara berkala).
j) The
government is accountable to its citizens for all its actions.
k) The
courts have the power to review the legality of the laws and actions of the
government.
l) The
Constitution, the supreme law of the land, can only be amended according to
established procedures.
37. Explain the
characteristics of a totalitarian government.
The
characteristics of a totalitarian government may be explained as follows:
i.
It is an autocratic government with a
single party or leader (dictator). (e.g. North Korea, Cuba, People’s Republic
of China, Germany under Adolf Hitler)
ii.
It holds all political, economic,
military and judicial power.
iii.
It controls even the private
life of the people.
iv.
It is not accountable to the people and
it cannot be controlled by them.
v.
There is an official ideology and the
people are required to accept and obey it. (Communism, Marxism, racial
superiority etc).
vi.
The leader and the state are considered
important but the people are not.
vii.
Totalitarian governments do not allow
activities by individuals or groups (such as labour / trade unions, protests,
demonstrations and open criticism of the government).
viii.
Totalitarian governments maintain
themselves in power through secret police, propaganda, and the strict control
of the mass media and the use of terror tactics.
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NOTE:
For other forms of government – i.e. federal,
unitary, parliamentary and presidential governments and monarchy - read my PAD
120 notes. Also read and revise “Understanding Modern Political Terms” posted on my
website to have an idea of the important political terms covered in this
Course.
(C ) Peter
Johnson 2011