Organizational theory in the context of public administration enables us to understand how public agencies function and how people behave in them.
THE BUREAUCRATIC THEORY
Max Weber (1864 - 1920), a prominent ( terkenal) German sociologist and political economist, was the chief exponent (pendukung) of the bureaucratic theory of organisation. Weber used the term 'bureaucracy' to mean a legal- rational organisation which is applicable to all big organizations, both public and private. It stands for a formalised and systematized social organization for administrative purposes. Its aim is to achieve efficiency (kecekapan) of organizational operations through rationalization of organizational behaviour. Thus Weber presents an 'ideal-type' of bureaucracy. He believed that the legal-rational bureaucratic model is the most efficient organizational form suitable for modern large-scale organizations.
Main Features of Max Weber's Bureaucratic Theory
According to Max Weber, the ideal bureaucratic organization called the rational-legal bureaucracy has the following characteristics or features:
1. Division of labour and specialization of work. As part of a systematic division of labour, all tasks
(tugas/kerja) of the organisation are divided into specialised jobs (e.g. finance, research,
recruitment, training, law enforcement, etc).
2. The activities and authority of each official are fixed by laws and administrative rules and
regulations.
3. Formalized, written rules of conduct and procedure must be applied uniformly and consistently.
These rules may be either technical or legal. In both cases trained men are necessary.
4. A well-defined hierarchy of authority, i.e., a hierarchical arrangement of offices each with its own
authority. The administrative structure of the bureaucracy is like a pyramid with each lower official
under the control of a higher official. In the words of Weber, " a firmly ordered system of superior
and subordination in which there is supervision of the lower offices by the higher ones."
5. Administration is carried on by full-time, salaried and appointed career officers. They are non-
political officials. They are selected on the basis of their technical competence
(kebolehan/kecekapan) and qualification. Promotions are based on written policies and the principle
of merit.
6. The members of the organization perform their official duties according to formal rules, regulations
and procedures.
7. The resources of the organisation are quite distinct from those of the members as private
individuals.
8. The bureaucrats observe impersonal relations among themselves and with their clientele
(pelanggan). This means that they follow formally- established norms of conduct and can only act in
accordance with these rules in their contact with others inside and outside the organization.
Criticism of the Bureaucratic Theory (Disadvantages)
Weber's bureaucratic theory has been criticized on various grounds (alasan). These may be summarised as follows:
a. The bureaucratic model is very rigid and inflexible. The emphasis on control through strict rules
and regulations and hierarchical authority may discourage innovation, creativity and making risky
decisions.
b. Weber's theory emphasizes means (cara) and neglects (mengabaikan) ends (tujuan). It overlooks
the importance of the goals of an organization.
c. It does not deal with the informal social-psychological dimensions of the organisation. It gives little importance or attention to the individual in the organization and his needs. He is viewed as "only a single cog in an ever-moving mechanism which prescribes to him an essentially fixed route of march." The impersonality principle may not produce a sense of belonging or esprit de corps (morale) in the bureaucrats. It may contribute to a feeling of alienation (pengasingan) and encourage the disloyalty of the bureaucrats to the organization. In other words, the emphasis on formal structure and authoritarian supervision does not motivate the employee to high level of performance in the organization.
d. It is inappropriate to the needs (keperluan) of highly professional workers because of its structure of top-down authority.
e. It lacks the participative climate required for achieving the goals of an organisation effectively and efficiently, because Weber's bureaucratic model is hierarchical, position-oriented and authoritarian in concept.
f. It has been found inadequate to meet the needs of rapid economic and social development in developing countries because of its rigid formal structure, rules, strict control and impersonality.
g. Weber's theory of bureaucracy does not suit the developing nations since it is a product of highly-developed industrial societies of the West.
h. The stringent (strict)rules and cumbersome (lembap dan rumit) procedures result in red-tapism (pita merah - delays) which can cause frustration and dissatisfaction among the ordinary people.
Advantages of Bureaucracy
a. The government cannot survive without the bureaucracy - it helps formulate policies and implements them for the benefit of the people.
b. Bureaucracy has made administration more efficient, rational, impartial and consistent than was the case in earlier times.
c. In the third world countries, bureaucracy plays an important role. It promotes national integration and national unity through administrative policy and action.
d. It provides various services to the public in an efficient and effective manner.
e. It fights corruption, divisive and disruptive forces and enforce order and peace in the country.
TYPES OF BUREAUCRACY
A. Neutral Bureaucracy
Bureaucrats (civil servants) are full-time, permanent non-political employees of the government. They, therefore, should serve any government with enthusiasm, integrity, impartiality and disinterestedness. It is said that civil servants are required to serve the government of the day. In other words, they must show political neutrality. They should not be aligned with any political party or political ideology. For this reason, top civil servants are prohibited (dilarang) from taking active part in politics. They are required to resign if they are keen to contest in election or participate in party politics or if they disagree with government policies. Since bureaucrats are the servants of the state, they have to apply the laws and policies of the government consistently, fairly, impartially and uniformly. While applying the laws and policies of the state, they should not show any partiality or preference to any individual, any race or any group of individuals in society. They should be guided only by the application of equal law to everybody. In their relations with the public too civil servants must be impartial. This implies no discrimination. In a multi-cultural, multi-ethnic and multi-religious society like Malaysia, it is vital that bureaucrats uphold this cardinal principle of neutrality.
B. Representative Bureaucracy
The term 'Representative Bureaucracy' was coined (tercipta) by Donald Kingsley in his book Representative Bureaucracy: An Interpretation of the British Civil Service (1944). In Kingsley's view, the civil servants (i.e. the British Civil Service during World War II) had carried out the policies of the party in power very effectively because they shared that party's middle class origins. Kingsley argued that "representational participation" (penyertaan berperwakilan) should lead to "functional effectiveness" (keberkesanan fungsi) and political harmony. He further stated that "the degree to which all democratic institutions are representative is a matter of prime significance" and that "No group can safely be entrusted with power who does not themselves mirror the dominant sources in society." The concept of 'representative bureaucracy' was adopted and expanded (dipanjangkan dan dikembangkan) further by other scholars like David Levitan (1946), Norton Long (1952), Van Riper (1958), Krislov (1967), Subramaniam (1967), Mosher (1968), Thomas (1990), Meier and Bohte (2001) , Jreisat (2002) and Pitts and Wise (2010).
Representative bureaucracy now means a national bureaucracy in which the bureaucrats resemble the general public in terms of social origins, gender, race, religion, values and attitudes, In other words, the bureaucracy (civil service) should be reflective of the diversity ( i.e. gender, race/ethnicity, social and occupational groups, social class, religion and general values and norms) and demography of the nation. It should reflect or mirror (mencerminkan/menggambarkan) the racial and gender composition of the population of a country. If the civil servants are representative of the people they serve, they would be responsive to the wants, needs and concerns of the people. The main idea of representative bureaucracy is that "If the attitudes and values of the bureaucrats/administrators are similar to the attitudes and values held by the general public, the decisions and policies administrators make will in general be responsive to the desires of the people." ( Kenneth John Meier & Lloyd G. Nigro).
Merits of Representative Bureaucracy
The merits/advantages of representative bureaucracy may be stated as follows:
a. Organizations perform better if their workforces reflect the characteristics of their constituent populations.
b. It enhances harmonious and congenial (yang menyenangkan) relationship between the politicians and the civil servants.
c. Without the bureaucracy being representative, the country's political system would not be entirely democratic, and the laws, rules, policies and programmes of the government will not get full support from the people.
d. It is a means of fostering equity (fairness) in the policy-making process by helping to ensure that all interests (kepentingan semua rakyat) are represented in the formulation and implementation of government policies and programmes.
e. It increases government legitimacy (keabsahan), political stability, implementation capacity, accountability, effectiveness and people's participation.
f. Minority groups and women in society would be satisfied as their interests and concerns are taken care of and as a result they would support government's policies and programmes.
g. When minority bureaucrats work with and know the behaviour of other bureaucrats, they can check the excesses of the latter against minority group members (Thompson, 1976).
h. It is a responsive bureaucracy and takes into consideration the interests and concerns of the various segments of the population in a country.
i. A representative civil service would act as a funnel for divergent views, have a wide array of diverse skills and talents, and ensure that social responsibility is shared, leading to greater acceptance of government policies. (Thomas, 1990)
j. It could contribute to nation-building and foster (memupuk) national integration and national unity in a multi-racial, multi-lingual and multi-religious society like Malaysia.
k. It provides equal opportunities to all citizens in a country.
Demerits of Representative Bureaucracy
The disadvantages of representative bureaucracy are the following:
(i) It goes against the principle of merit in the selection or appointment of bureaucrats.
(ii) As the bureaucracy is composed of many classes and vested or special interests, there is likely to
be disagreements, partiality and favouritism in public administration and this could erode public
confidence in the government.
(iii) The appointment or selection of public servants on the basis of race, religion and gender would
threaten the principle of the neutrality of the civil service.
(iv) It could be a threat to the orderly democratic government and service to the general public
interests.
© Peter Johnson 2000-2014
Updated : January 2014